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It is very difficult to trace the true origins of the country now known as England, since its geopolitical outlines have, until relatively recent times, been subject to a state of ebb and flow, as a consequence of invasion, migration and political flux. Moreover, the notion of 'England' is often used synonymously for, the British Isles comprised of England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall, all of which do [or have], to a greater or lesser extent, consider[ed] themselves independant nations over the centuries, rather than just denoting the (dominant hegemon) nation state south of Hadrian's Wall and east of the [Welsh Marches]?. |
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The name "England" refers to the largest, most populous of the three main divisions of Great Britain, and dates from after the coming of the English; technically, it is anachronistic to talk of a history of England before that time. This article admits but ignores that anachronism. Also, the term "England" is often used (mostly outside the United Kingdom) to refer to the whole island or the whole U.K, or even the whole British Isles. See also articles on Scotland, Wales and Ireland. The territory of England has been politically united since the tenth century. This article centers on that territory; but after the accession of James VI of Scotland to the throne of England in 1603 it becomes increasingly hard to distinguish English from British history. |
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Little now remains in England by way of evidence of [Pre-Roman England]?, although the Bronze Age Stonehenge c.1500 BC, near to the much earlier stone circle at Avebury?, is an extremely large although untypical example. |
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Much evidence remains of [Pre-Roman England]?. The Bronze Age Stonehenge c.1500 BC, near to the much earlier stone circle at Avebury?, is an extremely large although untypical example. The south of England contains many iron-age hill forts, surviving as systems of concentric earthworks, from the huge Maiden Castle in Dorset down to much smaller ones like Grimsbury Castle in Berkshire. The Romans, led by Julius Caesar, landed in England in 55 and in 54 BC, although not as invaders. It was only much later, in 43 AD, under the emperor Claudius that [The Roman Occupation of England]? came about. In order to protect themselves from the depredations of the Picts, the inhabitants of Scotland at that time, the emperor Hadrian had a wall built from east to west, Hadrian's Wall, to defend England. |
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The Romans, led by Julius Caesar, landed twice in England around 55-54 BC, although this was not an invasion attempt. It was only later, under the emperor Claudius that [The Roman Occupation of England]? came about. In order to protect themselves from the depradations of the Picts, the inhabitants of Scotland at that time, the emperor Hadrian caused a wall to be built from east to west, Hadrian's Wall, to defend England. In typical Roman style, the Romans constructed a highly effective internal infrastructure to cement their military occupation, building long, straight roads the length and breadth of the country, most of which centred on London. For a deeper account of the Roman occupation of Britain, see Roman Britain. See also the Celtic tribes in the British Isles. |
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In classic Roman style, the Romans constructed a highly effective internal infrastructure to cement their military occupation, building long, straight roads the length and breadth of the country, most of which centred on London. For a deeper account of the Roman occupation of Britain, see Roman Britain. See also the Celtic tribes in the British Isles. |
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The indigenous, predominantly Celtic, population were suppressed with the customary Roman efficiency, although numerous, and often extremely bloody, uprisings occurred throughout the course of their occupation, the most notable being that of the Iceni? (and other tribes)led by Boudicca, known also as Boadicea, in 61 AD. The Roman occupation and the extent of their grip declined gradually such that by the 4th Century AD their hold may best be described as tenuous. |
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The indigenous, mostly Celtic population were suppressed with customary Roman efficiency, although numerous, and often extremely bloody, uprisings occurred all through their occupation, the most notable that of the Iceni? (and other tribes)led by Boudicca, or "Boadicea," in 61 AD. The Roman presence declined gradually so that by the 4th Century AD their hold may best be described as tenuous. |
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Starting with the raid 793 on the monastery at Lindisfarne, Vikings made many raids on England. Starting as plundering raids, the Vikings later began to settle in England and trade. There are many traces of vikings in England today, like for instance many words in the English language. One Viking settlement was in York (which they called Jorvik?). |
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Starting with the raid in 793 on the monastery at Lindisfarne, Vikings made many raids on England. Starting as plundering raids, the Vikings later began to settle in England and trade. There are many traces of vikings in England today, as for instance many words in the English language; the similarity of Old English and Old Norse led to much borrowing. One Viking settlement was in York (which they called Jorvik?). |
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It was not until 936, however, that Athelstan? was able to evict the Cornish from Exeter, and drew a line at the extent of his kingdom, Wessex, at the river Tamar?. |
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It was not until 936?, however, that Athelstan? was able to evict the Cornish from Exeter, and drew a line at the extent of his kingdom, Wessex, at the river Tamar?. |
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The defeat of King Harold? at the [Battle of Hastings]? in 1066 at the hands of William of Normandy, later styled William I and the subsequent Norman takeover of [Saxon England]? led to a sea-change in the history of the small, isolated, island state. William ordered the compilation of the [Domesday Book]?, which was a survey of the entire population and their lands and property. |
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The defeat of King Harold? at the [Battle of Hastings]? in 1066 at the hands of William of Normandy, later styled William I of England and the subsequent Norman takeover of [Saxon England]? led to a sea-change in the history of the small, isolated, island state. William ordered the compilation of the [Domesday Book]?, which was a survey for tax purposes of the entire population and their lands and property. |
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Henry I, also known as Henry Beauclerc (on account of his education), worked hard to reform and stabilise the country and smooth the differences between the Anglo-Saxon and Norman societies. The loss of his son, William, in the wreck of the White Ship in November 1120, was to undermine his reforms. This problem regarding succession was to cast a long shadow over English history. |
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Henry I, also known as Henry Beauclerc (on account of his education), worked hard to reform and stabilise the country and smooth the differences between the Anglo-Saxon and Norman societies. The loss of his son, William, in the wreck of the White Ship in November 1120?, was to undermine his reforms. This problem regarding succession was to cast a long shadow over English history. The disastrous and inept reign of Stephen (1135 - 1154) was to see a major swing in the balance of power towards the feudal barons, as England descended inexorably into civil war and lawlessness. In trying to appease Scottish and Welsh raiders on those borders, he handed over large tracts of land. Moreover, his conflicts with his cousin, the Empress Matilda?, who he had earlier promised recognition as heir, were his undoing: she bided her time in France and, in the autumn of 1139, invaded (with her husband, [Geoffrey of Anjou]? and her half-brother, Robert, Earl of Gloucester). |
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The disastrous and inept reign of Stephen (1135 - 1154) was to see a significant swing in the balance of power towards the feudal barons, as England descended inexorably into civil war and lawlessness. In attempting to appease Scottish and Welsh raiders on those borders, he handed over large tracts of land. Moreover, his conflicts with his cousin, the Empress Matilda?, who he had earlier promised recognition as heir, were to be his undoing: she bided her time in France and invaded (with her husband, [Geoffrey of Anjou]? and her half-brother, Robert, Earl of Gloucester) in the autumn of 1139. Stephen was captured, and his government fell, Matilda was proclaimed queen. She however was soon at odds with her subjects and was expelled from London. A period of insurrection and civil war then followed and continued until 1148, when Matilda went back to France. Stephen effectively reigned unopposed until his death in 1154, a year after reaching an accommodation with Henry of Anjou, (who became Henry II) in which the peace between them was guaranteed on the condition that the throne would be his by succession. |
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Stephen was captured, and his government fell. Matilda was proclaimed queen but was soon at odds with her subjects and was expelled from London. The period of insurrection and civil war that followed continued until 1148, when Matilda returned to France. Stephen effectively reigned unopposed until his death in 1154, a year after reaching an accommodation with Henry of Anjou, (who became Henry II) in which peace between them was guaranteed on the condition that the throne would be his by succession. |
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The Black Death made grim inroads into the population count in the middle of the 14th century. International excursions were invariably against domestic neighbours: the Welsh, Irish, Scots and the French, with the principal notable battles being the [Battle of Crécy]? and the Battle of Agincourt. On the home front, a sporadic baronial war, the Wars of the Roses, broke out from time to time over contending claims to the throne between the [House of Lancaster]? and the [House of York]?. This culminated in the eventual victory of Henry Tudor, Henry VII, at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, where the Yorkist Richard III was slain, and the succession of the Lancastrian House was assured. |
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The Black Death, an epidemic of bubonic plague that spread over all Europe, arrived in England in 1349 and killed perhaps up to a third of the population. International excursions were invariably against domestic neighbours: the Welsh, Irish, Scots and the French, with the principal notable battles being the [Battle of Crécy]? and the Battle of Agincourt. On the home front, a sporadic baronial war, the Wars of the Roses, broke out from time to time over contending claims to the throne between the [House of Lancaster]? and the [House of York]?. This culminated in the eventual victory of Henry Tudor, Henry VII, at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, where the Yorkist Richard III was slain, and the succession of the Lancastrian House was assured. |
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King Henry VIII split with the Roman Catholic Church over a question of his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and although his religious position was not at all protestant, the resultant schism ultimately and eventually led to England distancing itself almost entirely from Rome. A notable casualty of the schism was Henry's chancellor, Sir Thomas More. There followed a period of considerable religious and political upheaval, which led to the Reformation?, the royal expropriation of the monasteries and a considerable amount of the wealth of the church. |
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King Henry VIII split with the Roman Catholic Church over a question of his divorce from Catherine of Aragon. Though his religious position was not at all Protestant, the resultant schism ultimately led to England distancing itself almost entirely from Rome. A notable casualty of the schism was Henry's chancellor, Sir Thomas More. There followed a period of great religious and political upheaval, which led to the Reformation?, the royal expropriation of the monasteries and much of the wealth of the church. |
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In 1664/65 England was swept by a visitation of the Great Plague, and then, in 1666, London, the timbered capital city of England, was swept by fire, the Great Fire of London, which raged for 5 days, killing 20% of the city's population and destroying c. 15,000 buildings. |
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In 1664/65 England was swept by a visitation of the Great Plague, and then, in 1666, London, the timbered capital city of England, was swept by fire, the Great Fire of London, which raged for 5 days, destroying c. 15,000 buildings. |
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The replacement of the catholic king [James II]? with the Dutch protestant William of Orange, [William III]?, by the English government led to a series of uprisings, the [Jacobite Rebellions]? which were to continue until the mid-18th century. |
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The replacement of the catholic king [James II]? with the Dutch protestant William of Orange, William III, by the English government led to a series of uprisings, the [Jacobite Rebellions]? which were to continue until the mid-18th century. |
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